J.E. Kennedy and H.
Kanthamani[1]
(Original publication and copyright: The Journal of the American Society
for Psychical Research, 1995, Volume 89,
pp.249-265.)
?
(Also available as pdf)
ABSTRACT:
Questionnaires were developed to
investigate the effects that paranormal and transcendent/spiritual experiences
have on peoples' lives.? Data from a
convenience sample of 120 people actively interested in parapsychology who
reported having had at least one paranormal and/or transcendent experience
showed that these experiences increased their interest and beliefs in spiritual
matters and increased their sense of well-being.? More specifically, the majority of respondents indicated that the
experiences resulted in increased belief in life after death, belief that their
lives are guided or watched over by a higher force or being, interest in
spiritual or religious matters, sense of connection to others, happiness,
well-being, confidence, optimism about the future, and meaning in life.? They also indicated decreases in fear of
death, depression or anxiety, isolation and loneliness, and worry and fears about
the future.? A large majority of respondents
indicated that these effects resulted from a combination of more than one
paranormal and/or transcendent experience.?
The magnitude of changes in well-being and spirituality were positively
associated with the number of anomalous experiences.? Measures of current well-being and current importance of
spirituality were positively associated with reported changes in well-being and
spirituality resulting from anomalous experiences.? Although 45% of the respondents indicated that a paranormal
experience had made them very afraid, this fear appeared to be temporary or
mixed with positive feeling because only 9% indicated that their experiences
have been scary with no positive value.?
Further research should investigate the extent to which the findings for
this selected sample apply to other populations and the extent to which
motivations relating to spirituality direct or underlie the occurrence of
paranormal phenomena, including in experimental settings.
???Recent
research suggests that a world view that is open to aspects of life beyond the
physical-materialistic realm can be conducive to health and well-being
(Borysenko, 1993; Gartner, Larson, & Allen, 1991; Koenig, 1990; Larson, et
al., 1992; Ornish, 1990).? Interest in
this research on mind-body medicine and the link between spirituality and
health is rapidly growing.
???Although
one might expect that psychic experiences would promote this type of worldview,
virtually no research has been done in parapsychology on the effects of psychic
experiences on? peoples' lives and
worldviews.? Several studies have found
that near-death experiences induce positive changes or transformation in many
people (Gallup with Proctor, 1982; Greyson & Stevenson, 1980; Ring, 1980; 1984),
but this investigation generally has not been extended to other types of
paranormal experiences.? White (1990)
and Blackmore (1988) have called for such research, and Milton (1992) reported
a small initial survey of the effect of psychic experiences on people's
lives.? On the other hand, the fact that
some people are disturbed by psychic experiences and may need counseling has
often been discussed in parapsychology (e.g., Hastings, 1983; Siegel, 1986;
Weiner, 1980), but the frequency of occurrence of negative reactions has not
been quantitatively described.
???Information
on the effects of psi experiences also may provide insights into motivational
factors that are widely presumed by parapsychologists to guide or underlie psi
phenomena.? Although motivational
factors are thought to be pivotal for psi phenomena (Broughton, 1988; Stanford,
1974a, 1974b; Weiner and Geller, 1984), very little research has been aimed at
investigating the overall effects of paranormal experiences.? This type of research may provide one of the
best windows to the motivations underlying the phenomena. Information on the
effects of psi phenomena for people who volunteer for parapsychological
research may be of particular interest to experimental researchers.
???The
purposes of the present study were (a) to develop questionnaires to evaluate
the effects of paranormal and mystical/spiritual experiences on people's lives,
and (b) to collect initial data with the questionnaires.?
METHODS
Questionnaires
???The
development of the two primary questionnaires for this study was influenced by
several factors, including published work, our previous experience with people
reporting anomalous experiences, our preliminary explorations with various
questionnaire strategies, and our personal anomalous experiences.? One overriding goal of questionnaire
development was to have short questionnaires that could be used in a wide
variety of situations.? The final
questionnairesentitled the Index of Changes Resulting From Experiences and the
Checklist of Effects of Experiences,?
are given in appendixes A and B respectively.? These two questionnaires were administered along with the
two-page Life Experiences Questionnaire,[2]
which is described in other reports (Kennedy,?
Kanthamani, & Palmer, in press; Kennedy & Kanthamani,
inpess).? The Life Experiences
Questionnaire contains measures related to current health status including
well-being, meaning in life, and self-reported health.? Results for the Life Experiences
Questionnaire are reported separately (Kennedy & Kanthamani, in
press).?
???These
questionnaires focus on paranormal and transcendent experiences.? Paranormal experiences were described as
including psychic and out-of-body experiences, healing miracles, communication
with the dead, apparitions, etc. This broad subject matter was selected because
our initial explorations found that people described a wide variety of
anomalous experiences as affecting their lives and sometimes reported
interactions among different types of experiences.? Transcendent experiences included profound mystical or spiritual
experiences, which were characterized in the Life Experiences Questionnaire as
an "overwhelming feeling of peace and unity with the entire creation, or
profound inner sense of divine presence."?
For this project, we were more interested in the effects of the
experience than a precise categorization of the type of experience.? In this report, we use the term anomalous
when referring to both types of experiences.
???In
addition to the two questionnaires on the effects of the experiences, the
respondents were asked how many times they had each type (paranormal or
transcendent) of experience and to describe briefly their most important
experience.? Some experiences may have
both paranormal and transcendent features and were counted in both
categories.? Respondents were also asked
their age at the time of the experience and were given the option of not
sharing the details of the experience for personal reasons.? Each author independently classified the
experience descriptions as paranormal, transcendent, or both, and the
discrepancies were resolved.? If a
respondent described separate paranormal and transcendent experiences, the
classification "both" was used.?
Because we were primarily interested in the effects of the experiences,
we accepted the respondents' interpretation of their experiences and did not
exclude experiences that appeared to us to be doubtful or of poor quality.
???Index of Changes Resulting From
Experiences:? This questionnaire asks the respondents
whether their paranormal or transcendent experiences resulted in an increase,
decrease, or no change for each of 21 feelings or characteristics.? The development of this index began by
selecting key items from Ring's (1984) work with near-death experiences.? We added other items that more directly related
to well-being and also added some negative items to make the items more
balanced.? After a few? preliminary respondents commented that they
had difficulty with the questionnaire because change should be measured
relative to a baseline value, we added a response column asking to what extent
the respondent had the feeling or characteristic prior to his or her anomalous
experience(s).? A final question asked
whether the indicated changes were due primarily to one experience or to a
combination of experiences.? After
initial use, three items were replaced by other items and minor wording changes
were made for a few other items.? The
varying sample sizes in the results reflect the items that were added later.
???Checklist of Effects of Experiences
(Appendix B): This questionnaire
lists 20 statements of possible effects of paranormal or transcendent
experiences and asks the respondent to check all those that apply to him or
her.? Although a variety of sources were
used to develop this list of statements, the primary source was the detailed
responses from over 30 people on an earlier, preliminary open-ended
questionnaire about the full effects of their anomalous experiences.? Here too, some items were replaced and others
slightly modified after initial use.
???In the
questionnaire package the Index of Changes Resulting from Experiences was
placed before the Checklist of Effects of Experiences.? For about two thirds of the cases, the
description of the most important experience was placed before the two
questionnaires.? This ordering allowed
(forced) respondents to think about their experiences before filling out the
other questionnaires.? For about one
third of the cases the description of the most important experience was placed
after the two questionnaires to see if this order affected the return rate
(which it did not).? Initially, the
two-page Life Experiences Questionnaire[3]
was used as a screening tool to identify people with experiences who were later
sent the questionnaires about their experiences.? However, due to poor response rates, we put all the
questionnaires together in one five-page package.? Over three-fourths of the data were obtained with the five-page
package.
Respondents
???The
questionnaires were administered to a convenience sample of people who were
likely candidates to have had anomalous experiences.? The great majority were actively interested in parapsychology and
were typical of people who volunteer for parapsychological research.? For the purposes of this initial study, we
were interested in people with anomalous experiences, not a random sample from
the general population.? Only people who
reported one or more paranormal or transcendent experiences were included in
the analysis.? The 120 respondents with
experiences were:? 7 drop-in visitors to
the Institute for Parapsychology, 9 people who contacted the Institute by mail
or phone, 9 participants in the 1994 summer study program at the Institute, 3
staff members of the Institute, 3 members of the Association for Research and
Enlightenment (Edgar Cayce group)? who
attended a talk on parapsychology, 13 college students from the mail survey
that was described previously (Kennedy, Kanthamani, & Palmer, in press),
and 76 respondents to questionnaires mailed to 1200 names on a mailing list of
people who had ordered books or other products related to paranormal
phenomena.? These constitute all the
responses we have obtained to date for these questionnaires.
???The study
sample represents people who are interested in paranormal phenomena and are
motivated to participate in research.?
The findings from this group may not be typical of other groups.
Data
Analysis
???The
primary purpose of the study was to provide initial data identifying and
describing the effects of the experiences.?
No statistical hypothesis tests were planned.? All data were independently checked after data entry to verify
accuracy.
RESULTS
???The 120
respondents were 62% female.? Mean age
was 42 years and ranged from 16 to 84.?
The age distribution of the respondents, was: 22% under age 25, 23% aged
25 through 39, 35% aged 40 through 59, and 21% 60 or older.
Multiple
Experiences
???The
majority of respondents reported multiple paranormal and transcendent
experiences.? As shown in Table 1, 52%
reported more than 10 paranormal experiences and about 27% reported more than
10 transcendent experiences.? The higher
percentage of paranormal experiences may reflect the fact that respondents were
recruited based on interest in parapsychology and the paranormal.? Approximately 96% of the respondents
reported at least one paranormal experience, and 83% reported at least one
transcendent experience.? The obvious
trend in Table 1 indicating that multiple paranormal experiences were
associated with multiple transcendent experiences reflects a correlation
coefficient of .52 between the number of each experience.
Table 1. Number of
Paranormal and Transcendent Experiences
|
|
|
??????????????????????? Number
of Transcendent Experiences |
|||||
|
|
|
None |
One |
2 - 5 |
6 - 10 |
> 10 |
Totala |
|
Number of |
None |
???? 0 |
???? 4 |
??? ?1 |
???? 0 |
???? 0 |
??? 5 |
|
Paranormal |
1 |
???? 2 |
???? 0 |
???? 2 |
???? 0 |
???? 0 |
??? 4 |
|
Expereinces |
2 - 5 |
??? 10 |
???? 8 |
??? 10 |
???? 1 |
???? 3 |
?? 34 |
|
|
6 - 10 |
???? 4 |
???? 3 |
???? 3 |
???? 3 |
???? 1 |
?? 14 |
|
|
> 10 |
???? 3 |
???? 2 |
??? 17 |
???? 9 |
??? 27 |
?? 61 |
|
|
Totala |
??? 20 |
??? 17 |
??? 34 |
??? 13 |
??? 31 |
|
????????? a The figures for the totals include missing values for
the other variable and therefore are sometimes greater than the sum of the rows
and columns.? There were 118 cases
without missing responses for the number of paranormal experiences and 115
cases for number of transcendent experiences.
???The
effects of the experiences were generally due to a combination of
experiences.? On the Index of Changes,
86% of the respondents indicated that the changes were due primarily to more
than one anomalous experience (excluding 17 respondents who did not answer this
question).? Likewise, on the Checklist
of Effects, 71% of the respondents indicated that one or more of the effects
checked was due to more than one anomalous experience.
???Respondents
with a larger number of experiences reported more effects from their
experiences.? The number of items
checked on the Checklist of Effects of Experiences (excluding the last two
items) correlated (r=.51) with the
number of paranormal experiences and (r=.49)
with the number of transcendent experiences.?
The percentage of items marked as either increasing or decreasing on the
Index of Changes Resulting From Experiences correlated (r=.36) with the number of transcendent experiences, but was not
suggestively associated with the number of paranormal experiences (r=.14).?
This latter result suggests that many of the feelings and
characteristics on the Index of Changes may be more influenced by transcendent
than paranormal experiences.
???The
experience descriptions were classified as 55% paranormal, 13% transcendent,
19% both, and 5% as cases that appeared to be neither paranormal nor
transcendent.? About 8% of the
respondents chose not to describe their most important anomalous experience.
Index of
Changes Resulting From Experiences
???The Index
of Changes Resulting From Experiences questionnaire (see Appendix A) indicated
increased interest and belief in spiritual matters and increased
well-being.? As shown in Table 2, the
most extreme changes were for spirituality-related items such as desire to
achieve a higher consciousness, belief in life after death, and interest in
spiritual or religious matters.? A
preponderance of positive responses were also found on well-being items such as
feelings of happiness and well-being, sense of connection to others, optimism
about the future, purpose or meaning for life, and motivation to maintain
health. Reciprocal responses were found on the negative well-being items:
feelings of isolation or loneliness, feelings of depression? or anxiety, and worry and fears about the
future.?
Table 2. Results from Index of Changes Resulting from
Experiences
|
Feeling
or Belief |
Increase |
No Change |
Decrease |
N |
????????? Factorsa ?1???????
2???????? 3??????? 4??????? 5 |
|
|||||||||
|
Desire to
achieve a higher ?? consciousness???? |
80% |
20% |
?0% |
113 |
|
|
+ |
|
|
||||||
|
Interest
in the paranormal |
77% |
23% |
?0% |
113 |
|
|
+ |
|
|
|
|||||
|
Belief in
life after death |
68% |
32% |
?0% |
114 |
|
|
+ |
|
|
|
|||||
|
Interest
in spiritual or religious matters?? |
66% |
32% |
?2% |
111 |
|
|
+ |
|
|
|
|||||
|
Sense of
connection to others |
63% |
33% |
?4% |
112 |
+ |
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
Belief in
a higher power? |
62% |
35% |
?4% |
112 |
|
+ |
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
Sense of
purpose or meaning for my life |
59% |
39% |
?2% |
113 |
|
+ |
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
Feelings
of happiness and well‑being?????
|
55% |
40% |
?5% |
113 |
+ |
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
Motivation
to maintain my health?????????? ? |
53% |
44% |
?2% |
?88 |
|
+ |
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
Optimism
about the future |
51% |
42% |
?6% |
111 |
+ |
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
Tolerance
for others |
46% |
48% |
?6% |
113 |
|
|
|
+ |
|
|
|||||
|
Focus on
living in the present |
45% |
44% |
10% |
?88 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
Ability
to express love |
45% |
53% |
?2% |
112 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
Desire to
help others |
42% |
57% |
?2% |
113 |
|
+ |
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
Desire to
have a high standard of living? |
18% |
69% |
12% |
114 |
|
|
|
|
+ |
|
|||||
|
Feeling
that my life has no direction??????? |
14% |
45% |
41% |
111 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
Frustration
with incompetent people?????? |
12% |
58% |
30% |
114 |
|
|
|
─ |
|
|
|||||
|
Feelings
of isolation or loneliness????????? |
11% |
49% |
40% |
113 |
─ |
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
Worry and
fears about the future?????????? |
10% |
45% |
45% |
?89 |
─ |
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
Feelings
of depression or anxiety??????????? |
?10% |
43% |
47% |
111 |
─ |
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
Fear of
death???????????????????? |
?7% |
39% |
54% |
112 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
?? aFactors are based on factor
analysis. ?+ means positive loading and
─ means negative loading.
???For all
but two items the changes resulting from the experiences were not related to
the degree that the person had the feeling or characteristic prior to the
experiences.? The two exceptions were
"depression or anxiety" and "worry and
fears about the future," which had greater decreases associated with
reported higher levels before the anomalous experiences (r=.31 and .28 respectively).
???Various
exploratory factor analyses gave mixed results.? Five factors are indicated in Table 2. The first factor includes
key well-being measures and the third factor includes several items that may be
related to spirituality.? These two
factors and the fifth factor (desire to have a high standard of living) were relatively
distinct.? The other two factors
correlated with factor one and tended to vary with different rotations and
numbers of retained factors.? The scree
plot did not suggest a clear number of factors.? These results are probably not surprising because most items on
the questionnaire were not intended to provide multiple indicators of
underlying constructs.? The relatively
low ratio of observations to variables also may be a factor in these results.
Checklist of
Effects of Experiences
???The
results from the Checklist of Effects of Experiences (see Appendix B) confirm
the impacts on spirituality and well-being.?
As shown in Table 3, 72% of the respondents indicated that they believe
their life is guided or watched over by a higher force or being as a result of
their experiences, 63% are certain there is life after death, 55% became
significantly more spiritual or religious, and 49% were helped to understand
and accept death.? Similarly, 56% became
more happy and confident, and only 8% became more anxious and insecure.?
Table 3. Results from
Checklist of Effects of Experiencesa
|
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? Statement |
Checked ?Yes |
|
I have
had one or more experiences that I am certain were paranormal, and not just
coincidence or imagination. |
87% |
|
As a
result of my paranormal or transcendent experience(s), I believe my life is
guided or watched over by a higher force or being. |
72% |
|
One or
more of the statements checked above was due to a sequence or combination of
more than one paranormal and/or transcendent experiences.?? [at bottom of questionnaire] |
71% |
|
As a
result of my paranormal or transcendent experience(s), I am certain there is
life after death. |
63% |
|
A
paranormal or transcendent experience was one of the most wonderful
experiences of my life. |
59% |
|
I have
had paranormal and/or transcendent experiences since childhood. |
58% |
|
My
paranormal or transcendent experience(s) have made me more happy and
confident. |
56% |
|
I became
significantly more spiritual or religious as a result of my paranormal or
transcendent experience(s). |
55% |
|
One or
more paranormal or transcendent experiences helped me accept and understand
death. |
49% |
|
One or
more paranormal experiences helped me avoid injury or avoid a serious
personal or financial problem. |
47% |
|
I have
seen or experienced paranormal phenomena that made me very afraid. |
45% |
|
I feel
like I have a purpose or mission in life as a result of my paranormal or
transcendent experience(s). |
45% |
|
One or
more paranormal or transcendent experiences seemed to confirm or reinforce
that I was doing what I should be doing. |
38% |
|
One or
more paranormal or transcendent experiences played a role in helping me
overcome a difficult personal problem. |
32% |
|
One or
more paranormal experiences played a role in helping me meet someone with
whom I formed an important personal or professional relationship. |
30% |
|
When I
was thinking about making a major life change, one or more paranormal or
transcendent experiences seemed to confirm or reinforce that I should make
the change. |
29% |
|
One or
more paranormal or transcendent experiences motivated me to make a major life
change that I was not previously thinking about making. |
25% |
|
My
paranormal and/or transcendent experiences have had little effect on my life
so far. |
18% |
|
My
paranormal experience(s) have been scary with no positive value that I can
find. |
?9% |
|
My
paranormal or transcendent experience(s) have made me more anxious and
insecure. |
?8% |
? aAll
statments have 119 responses, except three statements that have 95 due to
changes in the questionnaire.
???More
mundane beneficial effects were also common, but less prevalent than the
spirituality-related effects.? For
example, 47% indicated that a paranormal experience helped them avoid
injury or avoid a serious personal or financial
problem, 38% indicated that an anomalous experience confirmed that they were
doing what they should be doing, 32% indicated an experience helped them
overcome a serious personal problem, and 25% indicated an experience motivated
them to make a major life change.
Relationship
with Current Status
???The respondents'
current well-being, importance of spirituality, and sense of meaning in life
were positively related to the degree of change in these variables resulting
from anomalous experiences.? As shown in
Table 4, the correlation between current well-being or mental health measured
on the Life Experiences Questionnaire and change in well-being resulting from
anomalous experiences (the first factor from the Index of Changes) was
.50.? The current importance of religion
and spirituality as a purpose of life correlated (r=.34) with the item on interest in religious or spiritual matters
on the Index of Changes.? The
correlation between current global meaning in life and the item on purpose or
meaning for life on the Index of Changes was .40. The current levels of
well-being, importance of spirituality, and meaning in life were also
correlated with their corresponding values prior to the anomalous experiences
(see Table 4).? However, the partial
correlations between current levels and changes resulting from experiences
remained at approximately the same magnitudes after adjusting for the values
prior to the anomalous experiences.
Table 4. Correlations
between Current Status and Changes Resulting from Anomalous Experiencesa
|
|
Well-Being |
Spirituality |
Meaning in
Life |
|
Correlation between current
ratings and changes that resulted from anomalous experiences |
???? .50 |
.34 |
.40 |
|
Correlation between current
ratings and levels prior to anomalous experiences |
.33 |
.38 |
.25 |
|
Partial correlation between
current ratings and changes that resulted from anomalous experiences
adjusting for levels prior to anomalous experiences |
.58 |
.35 |
.41 |
?????????????? aFor all three variables, current
measures were taken from the Life Experiences Questionnaire, which included a
six-item mental health or well-being scale, one item asking the respondent to
rate the degree that observing religious and spiritual beliefs were an
important purpose of life for the respondent, and one item asking the
respondent to rate the degree that he or she has found meaning and purpose for
his or her life.? These current measures
were correlated with corresponding items from the Index of Changes Resulting
From Experiences.? The well-being
measure was the score for the first factor indicated in Table 2.? Spirituality was the rating for the item
"Interest in spiritual or religious matters."? Meaning in life was the rating for the item
"Sense of purpose or meaning for my life."? The levels prior to the experiences were taken from the
corresponding items on the Index of Changes From Experiences.
???The
number of transcendent experiences was also correlated with current importance
of spirituality (r=.43) and current
meaning in life (r=.32), and
marginally with current well-being (r=.19).? On the other hand, the correlations between
these three factors and number of paranormal experiences were .10 or less.[4]
?? Despite the overall positive effects, 45%
of the respondents reported that they have seen or experienced paranormal
phenomena that made them very afraid.?
However, only 9% indicated that their paranormal experiences have been
scary with no positive value.? Thus, the
fear reactions were either a short-term effect or occurred simultaneously with
positive effects.
???The only
convincing difference between sexes after adjustment for multiple analyses was
that females indicated a greater certainty of life after death on the Checklist
of Effects than males.?? This item was
checked by 76% of the females and 41% of the males (which gives a correlation
of .36).? There were no convincing
variations with age after adjustment for multiple analyses.
DISCUSSION AND
CONCLUSIONS
???People
who are actively interested in parapsychology and have had experiences they
interpret as paranormal or transcendent report that these experiences have
enhanced their spiritual beliefs and well-being.? These effects are generally a combined result of more than one
anomalous experience and a larger number of experiences are associated with
greater effects.? Fear apparently is a
relatively common initial reaction to paranormal phenomena, but the overall,
long-term effects appear to be positive in this group.?
???These
results support McClenon's conclusion that anomalous experiences promote
well-being and spirituality (McClenon, 1994).?
McClenon based his conclusion primarily on recent and historical
autobiographical accounts and field observations.? The present results are also similar to findings from near-death
experiences (Ring, 1980, 1984) and religious experiences (Hay, 1979), and
suggest that different types of anomalous experiences may induce similar
effects. (Only four of the experiences described in the present sample were
near-death experiences.)? These findings
are also consistent with other studies that (a) found positive overall ratings
for the effects of anomalous experiences but did not investigate what aspects
of life were affected (Gabbard & Twemlow, 1984; Kennedy & Kanthamani,
1995; Kennedy, Kanthamani, and Palmer, in press; Richards, 1991), and (b)
reported changes in various aspects of life, but did not report whether the
changes were positive or negative (Palmer, 1979).
???The
reports of increased well-being and other positive effects resulting from
anomalous experiences are consistent with the common assumption that paranormal
phenomena are guided by motivations or needs (Broughton, 1988; Stanford, 1974a;
1974b; Weiner and Geller, 1984).?
Although spirituality-related effects were most prevalent, more mundane
beneficial effects were also common.? Of
course, a psi experience with a relatively mundane benefit such as avoiding
personal injury, could also enhance a person's spiritual perspective.
? We believe that the present findings are
reasonably representative of people who are actively interested in paranormal
phenomena and who volunteer to participate in parapsychological research.? Although this selected population is of
interest in its own right, these findings, like the results of experiments
using similarly recruited subjects, cannot be confidently extended to the
general population. ?This population may
be a self-selected group with unusually positive reactions to anomalous
experiences.? However, even with such a
positive bias, the data may offer useful information about the relative
prevalence of different positive effects and associated motivational factors,
particularly for the population of people who volunteer for parapsychological
research.
???The fact
that anomalous experiences apparently induce positive reactions in some people
provides a strong impetus for additional research. ?The extent to which these findings generalize to other groups
remains to be investigated.? This line
of research also has significant implications for better understanding those
who volunteer to participate in parapsychological experiments and thus for better
understanding the results of those experiments.
Suggestions
for Future Research
???Under the
traditional assumption that motivation directs psi phenomena, the beneficial
effects reported here presumably are manifestations of the operative
motivations and certainly merit further investigation.? The present findings suggest that the most
prevalent self-reported positive effects of anomalous experiences pertain to
factors of spirituality and world view.?
Although researchers historically have thought that motivation guided
psi phenomena, very little research has been carried out on motivations related
to spirituality and world view.? At a
minimum, these factors could be routinely monitored in subjects volunteering to
participate in psi experiments.?
???Research
on the effects of anomalous experiences must also include a wide range of
experiences.? The present data confirmed
previous findings that the occurrence of different types of anomalous
experience tend to be correlated (Kohr, 1980; McClenon, 1994; Palmer, 1979;
Ring, 1984).? Our finding that the
overall effects of anomalous experiences are generally a combined result of
more than one anomalous experience implies that research efforts focusing on
only one or a limited range of experiences are likely to miss important
effects.? Also, the finding that the
effects of anomalous experiences are correlated with the number of experiences
suggests that the number of experiences is an important parameter that should
not be simply dichotomized into those with and without experiences.? Previous surveys by Greeley (1975) and
Palmer (1979) also suggest that the distinction between those with many
anomalous experiences versus those with few or none is more interesting than
the distinction between those with versus without any experiences.? At the same time, the hints in the present
data that transcendent experiences may be associated with greater positive
after-effects than psychic experiences is consistent with previous data (Kennedy,
Kanthamani, & Palmer, in press) and suggests that different types of
anomalous experiences should be distinguished and tracked in future research.
???Future
research should utilize questionnaires that more effectively addresses
spirituality.? To this end, we have
developed a new version of the Index of Changes Resulting From Experiences that
includes more aspects of spirituality and incorporates concepts and findings
from research on the psychology of religion.
???Revised
questionnaires could be administered to various selected populations.? Prime candidates include organizations of
people interested in parapsychology, spiritual organizations, and organizations
of skeptics.? It may be efficient to
focus on these selected populations before undertaking a random survey of the
general population.? In addition,
questionnaires along the lines of the Index of Changes Resulting From
Experiences can be administered for a wide variety of situations to compare the
effects of different experiences.? For
example, if uniform questionnaires are used, the effects of meditation or
spiritual development programs could be compared with the effects of
spontaneous anomalous experiences.?
Footnotes
[1] The authors thank the referees for making valuable
comments on an earlier version of this paper.?
We also want to thank Dr. K. Ramakrishna Rao for his encouragement and
support of this project and Joann Romano for data entry.? This study was supported in part by the Mary
Fleig Research Fellowship Fund from the Foundation for Research on the Nature
of Man.
[2] The Life Experiences Questionnaire
will be given in a subsequent article (Kennedy & Kanthamani, in press), and
an earlier and slightly modified and reformatted version is also being
published in another report (Kennedy, Kanthamani, & Palmer,? in press).
[3] Although the two-page Life Experiences Questionnaire
initially asked about psychic experiences and was later modified to inquire
about the broader category of paranormal expereinces (Kennedy & Kanthamani,
in press), the questionnaires described here that were used to obtain more
information from those with experiences were developed later in the project and
addressed soley the broader category of paranormal experiences.
[4] The importance of artistic
creativity as a purpose in life was positively correlated with number of
paranormal experiences (r=.30) and
number of transcendent experiences (r=.33).? These results extend the findings in other
reports that this artistic factor was positively associated with whether or not
a person reported having at least one paranormal experience (Kennedy &
Kanthamani, 1995; Kennedy, Kanthamani, & Palmer, 1994).
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APPENDIX A
Paranormal or
transcendent experiences may or may not bring about certain changes in an
individual's life.? We would like to
know in what ways, if any, your experience(s) affected your life.? For each characteristic or feeling listed
below, please check the box in the second column that best describes how you
were before your experience(s), and the box in the third column that best
describes the changes in your life resulting from your experience(s).
|
?Characteristic
or Feeling |
To what degree did you have this
characteristic or feeling before the paranormal or transcendent
experience(s) occurred? ???? --------------------------------------------- Very???????????????????? Very???????
Don't Much???? Some????? Little?????? Know |
How did this characteristic or feeling
change as a result of the paranormal or transcendent experience(s)? ??? ------------------------------------------- ??????????????????????? No Increased??? Change??? Decreased |
|
Sense
of purpose or meaning for my life |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]??????????? [? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]????????????? [? ] |
|
Worry
and fears about the future |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]??????????? [? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]????????????? [? ] |
|
Interest
in spiritual or religious matters |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]??????????? [? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]????????????? [? ] |
|
Fear
of death |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]??????????? [? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]????????????? [? ] |
|
Desire
to help others |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]??????????? [? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]????????????? [? ] |
|
Feelings
of depression or anxiety |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]??????????? [? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]????????????? [? ] |
|
Sense
of connection to others |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]??????????? [? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]????????????? [? ] |
|
Focus
on living in the present |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]??????????? [? ] |
? ?[? ]??????????????? [? ]????????????? [? ] |
|
Interest
in the paranormal |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]??????????? [? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]????????????? [? ] |
|
Desire
to have a high standard of living |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]?????????? ?[? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]????????????? [? ] |
|
Belief
in a higher power |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]??????????? [? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]????????????? [? ] |
|
Frustration
with incompetent people |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]????????? ??[? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]????????????? [? ] |
|
Feelings
of happiness and well-being |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]??????????? [? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]????????????? [? ] |
|
Ability
to express love |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]???????? ???[? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]???????????? [? ] |
|
Feeling
that my life has no direction |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]??????????? [? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]???????????? [? ] |
|
Motivation
to maintain my health |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]??????????? [? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]???????????? [? ] |
|
Belief
in life after death |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]??????????? [? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]???????????? [? ] |
|
Optimism
about the future |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]??????? ????[? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]???????????? [? ] |
|
Feelings
of isolation or loneliness |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]??????????? [? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]???????????? [? ] |
|
Tolerance
for others |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]??????????? [? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]???????????? [? ] |
|
Desire
to achieve a higher consciousness |
?[?
]????????? [? ]?????????? [? ]??????????? [? ] |
?? [?
]??????????????? [? ]???????????? [? ] |
|
Please
indicate whether the changes mentioned above were primarily due to just one
paranormal or transcendent experience or were the result of more than one: ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ____
Due to just one of them.????????? ____
Due to more than one of them.? |
||
APPENDIX
B
Please
place a check mark by any statement below that describes how your paranormal or
transcendent experience(s) affected you.?
Check as many statements as apply to your experience(s).
|
____? One or more paranormal experiences helped me
avoid injury or avoid a serious personal or financial problem. ____? One or more paranormal or transcendent
experiences helped me accept and understand death. ____? As a result of my paranormal or transcendent
experience(s), I am certain there is life after death.? ____? A paranormal or transcendent experience made
me very afraid. ____? A paranormal or transcendent experience was
one of the most wonderful experiences of my life. ____? When I was thinking about making a major
life change, one or more paranormal or transcendent experiences seemed to
confirm or reinforce that I should make the change. ____? One or more paranormal or transcendent
experiences motivated me to make a major life change that I was not
previously thinking about making. ____? I became significantly more spiritual or
religious as a result of my paranormal or transcendent experience(s). ____? One or more paranormal or transcendent
experiences seemed to confirm or reinforce that I was doing what I should be
doing. ____? I feel like I have a purpose or mission in
life as a result of my paranormal or transcendent experience(s). ____? One or more paranormal experiences played a
role in helping me meet someone with whom I formed an important personal or
professional relationship. ____? My paranormal or transcendent experience(s)
have made me more happy and confident. ____? One or more paranormal or transcendent
experiences played a role in helping me overcome a difficult personal
problem. ____? As a result of my paranormal or transcendent
experience(s), I believe my life is guided or watched over by a higher force
or being. ____? I have had paranormal and/or transcendent
experiences since childhood. ____? My paranormal or transcendent experience(s)
have made me more anxious and insecure. ____? My paranormal experience(s) have been scary
with no positive value that I can find. ____? I have had one or more experiences that I am
certain were paranormal, and not just coincidence or imagination. ____? One or more of the statements checked above
was due to a sequence or combination of more than one paranormal and/or
transcendent experiences. ____? My paranormal and/or transcendent
experiences have had little effect on my life so far. |